20th Century Speculative Fiction is a Graduate level course at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. We, the class of Fall '95, have speculated our way through past and future fiction from Wells to Leguin and beyond. In the course of this journey we have happened upon a variety of theoretical and ordinary terms which require special definition in regard to the study of Speculative Fiction, and others which we just didn't understand and felt the need to pin down. Source information is documented in a bibliography at the bottom of each web page; click the asterisk at the end of the welcome phrase. There is a possibility of future expansion and elaboration depending on the survival rate of participants in this course. This document was composed by Speculators Kelly Anderson, Rich Swenson, and Tiffany Trent. ~~ Hi Mom 8)

• Machine -- The definition of a machine outside the realm of speculative fiction is relatively simple. It is a device consisting of essentially unrelated parts (each with a different function) which is used to apply mechanical power, or in other words, to do work. The use of a machine implies transfer of energy, regardless of the source of that energy. For instance, a pulley system or a simple lever (e.g. a stick) is a machine, as are more complex devices such as computers and toaster ovens. In a narrower sense, a machine is a relatively or entirely automatic device requiring little or no manipulation by a human worker or operator. An example would be a refrigerator. Aside from plugging it in and perhaps adjusting the temperature, it requires no further assistance to do its job consistently and continuously. In the early stages of science, the term machine was often used to describe the workings of the biological form (locomotive, psychological, and biological processes). It is now used in a metaphorical sense. Once speculative literature enters the picture, bringing with it the robot and similar constructs of human/machine combination (see also cyborg, android), we enter an more complicated realm of the definition. The question arises again, at what point does a machine become a man? And, is that at all possible? Points of function and rational thought are relatively easy to concede, but life, consciousness, and sentience are more slippery concepts. Machine can also be used as a reference on a social scale, "applied to a person who acts merely from habit or obedience to rule, without intelligence, or to one whose actions have the undeviating precision and uniformity of a`machine'" (OED online). The dystopian scenarios of _A Brave New World_ and _1984_ come to mind. Humans may become machine-like as machines may become human-like. One of the more amusing, and yet somehow enlightening definitions of machine follows: "slang. The penis; a condom (see also quot. 1896). 1749 J. Cleland Mem. Woman Pleasure I. 200 Coming out with that formidable machine of his, he lets the fury loose....C. 1863 Philo cunnus Festival of Passions II. 12, I then seized his stiff machine in my grasp" (OED online). With that in mind, the deformed penis gun of Ursula K. Leguin's _The Disposessed_ casts a new kind of shadow (see p.3 of said text). ~~ K.A.A.
  
• Marxism -- Refers to Karl Marx's economic and political theories which state that according to scientific laws which are determined by dialectical materialism and because labor and wealth are dependent upon one another, historical development must lead to the violent overthrow of the elite capitalist class by the working class; this will result in the rise of the middle class laborers, who will take over the workplace and resume control over their product. Marx believed that the worker holds an unsatisfactory position in the industrial system. Marx uses the term "alienation" to describe how "the worker comes to face his own product as an independent power, an alien being" (Rose 141). The worker's product stands outside of his existence in a position of autonomous power which is opposed to the worker who created that product. The created object becomes a threat, set against him 'as an alien and hostile force' (qtd. in Rose 141). The alienation described by Marx is highly applicable to various modes within the SF genre, in terms of both social, figurative, and concrete objects. See also Alien, Cognitive Estrangement, and Other(ness). ~~ K.A.A.
  
• Meritocracy-- A ruling or influential class which is selected on the basis of merit in a competitive educational system. In SF, and in our own world, this is often seen as the ideal way to run a government. SF takes this to an extreme, by promoting the 'genius' as the hero, and who is seen as the only one who can truly lead us into the future. This idea of such a ruling class with these attributes goes hand in hand with that of technocracy. Natural intelligence, "and its ability to create new, socially transforming, technology", is the catalyst by which occur the changes that must take place in order for humanity to progress. (Huntington 3) (R.S.)
  
• Mimetic -- Closely related to imitation, the mimetic world is our world as it is represented in art and literature. The term refers to the realistic representation of the narrative world of a novel, as opposed to the subjective, authorial world. This mimetic world can have slight changes, in order to help reveal problems in our own world. We interpret the mimetic world for ourselves, through our own perceptions and thoughts, which make up our overall image of a work. Mimetic also uses aspects of the similar word, 'mimesis'. This is the deliberate imitation of the behavior of one group of people by another as a factor for social change. See also Diagetic (R.S.)
  
• Monster -- Once upon a time, monster meant something akin to ³a divine warning, a prodigy, a marvel² (OED). Interestingly, enough, it is now associated with such creatures as we all know and love like ghosts and vampires, etc. Wolfe feels that the monster acts fundamentally as a manifestation of the ³Unknown² paradigm in science fiction, ³an image of the unknown that generates initially a nonrational response...The oldest monsters...are agents of uncreated Chaos, and still today the icon of the beast suggests the flow of unreason that underlies all the rational structuresof science that science fiction pretends to exploit² (Wolfe 186). Mark Rose sees the icon of the monster in a somewhat similar way; however, he seeks to amplify the fact that the monster serves often as a function of ³self-alienation, as discovery of a buried life, a hidden self² (Rose 177). Both the authors see the monster in terms of the other side of a barrier, although Rose tends to see the monster in terms of transformation. Thus, the barrier becomes more a means of crossing over into self-discovery. Wolfe states that ³Since monsters symbolize the unknown, the encounter with the monster is often brought about either by humans breaching the barriers that separate them from the monster¹s realm, or vice versa...Monsters appear when one moves into an unknown region, or conducts a dangerous experiment, or subjects an individual or population to an unknown force, or releases unknown forces within the mind itself² (Wolfe 187). [TLT]
  
• Myth -- A purely fictitious narrative usually involving supernatural persons, actions, or events, and embodying some popular idea concerning natural or historical phenomena (OED). SF fits into this definition, in that "myths of society are made useful, becoming the bases for programs of action rather than mere narratives" (Wolfe 3). Myths attempt to explain the world in which we live, such as those of creation. This can take on significance when one realizes that science is often seen as a replacement for religion. Wolfe discusses science fiction as the 'modern myth' which stems from a world of technology, and by involving our own world, we are better able to cope with it. Science has become the myth of our culture, and it is this science, and its rationalities, that SF explores. Older myths have hero's, legends, and monsters to fight. SF uses these things in a more modern context, such as the evil robot replacing the dragon, the mad scientist deposing the sorcerer, and the magic spell becomes the scientific method. (R.S.)
  
• Mytheme -- A purely fictitious narrative usually involving supernatural persons, actions, or events, and embodying some popular idea concerning natural or historical phenomena (OED). SF fits into this definition, in that "myths of society are made useful, becoming the bases for programs of action rather than mere narratives" (Wolfe 3). Myths attempt to explain the world in which we live, such as those of creation. This can take on significance when one realizes that science is often seen as a replacement for religion. Wolfe discusses science fiction as the 'modern myth' which stems from a world of technology, and by involving our own world, we are better able to cope with it. Science has become the myth of our culture, and it is this science, and its rationalities, that SF explores. Older myths have hero's, legends, and monsters to fight. SF uses these things in a more modern context, such as the evil robot replacing the dragon, the mad scientist deposing the sorcerer, and the magic spell becomes the scientific method. (R.S.)
  
• New Wave SF -- New Wave SF was a movement that began in the 1960¹s when SF ³ceased to be the literature of only an intensely devoted minority² (Huntington 2). New Wave was the beginning of broad popularity for SF, and its growth ³coincides with a decade of political activism and of skepticism about technological solutions to social and environmental problems² (Huntington 2). New Wave was concerned with recycling old SF themes that had perhaps gotten too inward-looking. (James 167). It was characterized by an experimentation in narrative form and stylistic device that some ³traditional² writers of SF from the 1950¹s saw as a ³betrayal of the very spirit of SF² (James 175). However, some of the more radical edges of New Wave were smoothed out by the 1970¹s, and as James says, ³some of the more positive results remained: a more profound awareness of the political and moral complexties of the world, a more sophisticated and self-conscious literary approach, and a more realistically pessimistic attitude to human nature and the ability of technology to improve the human condition² (James 175). [TLT]
  
• Other(ness) -- In biological terms, the other is usually established in terms of self and non-self; for instance, one¹s own cells recognize each other as self, whereas viruses that enter the body from outside are seen as non-self. The same idea hold true for otherness in science fiction. Rose points to developmental psychology for a definition of the other: ³[O]nly gradually do we come in childhood to construct a world based upon the distinction between the self and the other. Moreover, as we also know, the line between the self and the other is never drawn permanently, set down in adament once and for all....The distinction between the self and the other is dynamic, breaking down and being reconstructed as long as life lasts² (Rose 191). The other is usually typified in science fiction by the icon of the monster, either outwardly or inwardly. In Wolfe¹s iconographic structure, the other could be described in terms of the unknown. [TLT]
  
• Paradigm -- From the Greek ³para´deigma² meaning a pattern or example. In literature, it is a moment of significance in terms of events, character, plot, etc. The paradigmatic moments are those which stand out to us as readers and make us take notice, make us stop and speculate what possiblilities they hold, where they came from, why they were put there, and what they might mean. They serve as examples from which we may extract something fudamental from the text, and range from the simple to the extraordinary to the absolutely bizarre. They may be trends or rules to which we adhere, dominant social structures, or inventions/events that mark a turning point in value systems, lifestyles, thought modes, behaviors. ~~ K.A.A.
  
• Progress -- Progress generally refers to an advancing or moving forward. The modern idea of progress is usually accepted as one that embraces technological development without hesitation or discrimination. Science fiction has entertained the notion of progress since its inception in various ways. Many of the earlier magazines devoted to SF envisioned future wonders that humanity barely dared to dream of. Hugo Gernsback¹s Air Wonder Stories, in particular, was dedicated in glowing terms to exploring the future possibilities of wonders in the air, of times to come when humanity might take wing and fly into the outer stratosphere. Modern-day SF has become decidedly less optimistic about progress, as noted in the entry concerning New Wave SF. Authors like Frank Herbert, Naomi Mitchison, and Ursula K. Le Guin are exploring and extrapolating how our current political, social, and technological traditions may transform through Time. These future in these modern novels is not nearly as bright as that envisioned in previous works. A commentary on the state of the world in the Œ90¹s perhaps? [TLT]
  
• Pulp Science Fiction -- The term ³pulp² is often used derogatorily in reference to popular, sensational, poor quality literature. Contributors to pulps were generally paid pennies per word with the ³in-demand² writers receiving rates toward nickel and dime range. The readers of pulps are stigmatized almost as harshly as the authors they read: ³1958 New Statesman 6 Sept. 294/3 The wretched reader of pulp literature is encouraged to dream of sins and orgies he is forbidden to enact² (OED online). Despite theses allegations, the pulps (in particular the early SF pulps of the 20¹s-¹60s) seem to be worthy of a different meaning of ³pulp² which is the pith. It may be spongy and of insubstantial mass, but realistically, it is the part of the wood all printed literature relies on. The pulps are the heart, the roots, of many literary genres, popular and ³low² though they may be. They are the door through which many great writers first go in their (sometimes accidental) quest for renown. For examples of SF Pulp Fiction and Authors see the VTSF mirror project. ~~ K.A.A.
  
• Robot --The question is, can robots love? The word "robot" was coined by Karel C&breve.apek (1890-1938) and used in the play Rossum's Universal Robots' from 1920. There, it refers to the mechanical humanoids designed to replace workers. He says of them, "You see..the Robots have no interest in life. They have no enjoyments" (OED online). In 1923 George Bernard Shaw "defined Robots as persons all of whose activities were imposed on them," and H.G. Wells, SF magnate, wrote in _Things to Come_: "All the balderdash..about `robot workers' and ultra skyscrapers, etc., etc., should be cleared out of your minds. Hence robo'teer, an expert in the making of robots; robo'tesque a., resembling or suggestive of a robot; ro'botian a., of or belonging to a robot or robots; 'robotism, mechanical behaviour or character; ro'botnik [-nik], a person behaving with mindless obedience to authority; 'robotry, the condition or behaviour of robots; 'roboty a., robot-like." See also Machine, Android, and Cyborg.
  
• Scientific Method -- The scientific method is a procedure by which natural manifestations and phenomena are analyzed. Originating in the 17th century, the scientific method requires "systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses" (OED online). ~~ K.A.A.
  
• Sense of Wonder [sensawunda] -- An important element in SF is the 'sensawunda', which develops itself in two ways. First, there is the basic feeling of awe that comes from reading science fiction, sometimes associated with the sublime. But it must not simply be viewed as an outward expression of surprise, disbelief, or fear. The second, and most important aspect of wonder is that it acts as a force to change the perception of the reader. The wonder, very often achieved by using one of the many icons of SF, acts as a mediator between the reader and that which is outside his or her experience. The reader encounters an aspect of the unknown, from which the sense of wonder is derived, and is able to cross the barrier into the stage of recognition of the unknown in the known. The reader takes away "an elevated sense of awareness" (Wolfe 23) after experiencing the sense of wonder. (R.S.)
  
• Softcore SF -- Opposite of Hardcore SF (R.S.)
  
• Spaceship -- Typically, spaceships have been inscribed in the human (and especially, the American) imagination as large, shiny, phallic objects which occupy the TV screen during certain scences of Bugs Bunny. They are also seen as saucer-like objects that are frequently the subjects of TV talk shows. The spaceship plays an integral role in science fiction, and Wolfe would argue that the phallic nature of spaceships is a ³popular misconception..[that]..seems to have derived partly from Verne¹s use of a concial projectile fired from a huge cannon and partly from the design of the earliest atmospheric rockets² (Wolfe 60). Spaceships are the devices by which both humans and aliens usually travel through space. ³In all cases, the interior is the abode of life, society, and comfort, while the outside suggests the confrontation of the unprotected individual with stark nature² (Wolfe 60). Wolfe suggests a dialectical relationship between inside and outside which is embodied within the icon of the spaceship. The spaceship represents home, the perfect environment, even the womb, while outside the spaceship resides the cold, black, open maw of space. [TLT]
  
• Sublime -- The sublime relates to SF in how it is applied to the "sense of wonder", in that it creates a feeling of "overwhelming grandeur or irresistible power; calculated to inspire awe, deep reverence, or lofty emotion, by reason of its beauty, vastness, or grandeur". This feeling of smallness in the face of something vastly incomprehensible can also cause terror. The sublime effects a feeling of insignificance on the reader of SF in the face of incredible unknowns, of unimaginable wildness, vastness, and power. The sublime links SF to past literary traditions, especially the gothic and romantic periods, and is in contrast with picturesque imagery. In Asimov's "Nightfall", the characters are overwhelmed by a night sky filled with stars that is seen only once every two thousand years. The characters, with the vast universe exposed to them for the first time, go crazy. They have experienced the sublime in the extreme. (R.S.)
  
• Sustaining and Subverting -- While these terms are completely oppositional, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, they are often used to describe the type of action that takes place throughout the narrative of SF. While Œsustain¹ suggests Œsupport or holding up,¹ Œsubvert¹ invokes Œperversion or tearing down.¹ The notion of SF both sustaining and subverting various ideas is consistent with the dialectical relationship between the known and the unknown that Wolfe identifies. SF typically takes certain norms and transforms these norms in some sense into something new and different than the original. Sustaining and subverting is a particularly effective literary device in SF because it heightens the sense of estrangement and displacement, which is crucial to bridging the gap between the known and the unknown. See also cognitive estrangement. [TLT]
  
• Speculation -- Speculation is an art form of the highest order. in the classroom, we turn to archaic and rare meanings of the term: "The faculty or power of seeing; sight, vision, esp. intelligent or comprehending vision...The contemplation, consideration, or profound study of some subject" (OED online). Gary Wolfe discusses the nature of speculative thought, quoting Henri Frankfort: "Speculation--as the etymology of the word shows--is an intuitive, an almost visionary, mode of apprehension. This does not mean, of course that it is mere irresponsible meandering of the mind, which ignores reality or seeks to escape from its problems. Speculative thought transcends experience, but only because it attempts to explain, to unify, to order experience. It achieves this end by means of hypotheses. If we use the word in its original sense, then we may say that speculative thought attempts to underpin the chaos of experience so that it may reveal the features of a structure--order, coherence, and meaning" (5). The ordinarily understood meaning of speculation is to take risks by purchasing or acquiring, as in properties and real estate, for instance. To speculate in thought is also to take risks; risks in interpretation and possibilities. As speculators we push the boundaries of acceptable modes of thought and discourse and interpretation to new horizons. ~~ K.A.A.
  
• Technocracy -- The control of society or industry by technical experts. This governing body will rule without the limitations of emotion, and reason will reign supreme. The conscious desire is more important than the subconscious. In these regimes, technology is the key to the power. Everything is run by those who control the machines, and in these worlds, the world often can't function without the machines. Even today, we can see certain examples of this, in the form of unions and strikes. If all the airplane mechanics were to strike, and if absolutely no planes were able to fly, a lot of problems would arise. Society becomes one in which specialization means everything. Technocracy is can be found often in hardcore SF. An example of technocracy is Heinlein's "The Roads Must Role". (R.S.)
  
• Technology -- SF often sees technology as the means of progress, whether it is good or bad depends on the writer. SF writers often seem to get off on technological advancements, throwing in ray guns and transporters all over the place simply because its fun. Technology, though, has its serious side. In creating technology as the real power of the future, then the scientists and technicians become the holders of that power. This leads to the theory of technocracy, in which these people are the rulers of the tech world. Technology can be seen as dangerous, as other. It can be seen as a threat by displacing nature and humanity itself. Technology has no emotion, and reason, the tool the scientific method, is the root of its power. Technology can also be seen as benign, and the users seen as the moralistic element, such as in Jules Verne's The Master of the World. (R.S.)
  
• Theology-- In a secular sense, which is more appropriate when dealing with SF, theology can be seen as a system of theoretical principles, or ideologies, that form the basic structure of a belief system. These belief systems can be seen in the different worlds created by the SF writers. They can be totally alien in relation to our own social structures, or it can be an attempt to recreate twentieth century ideologies in order to examine these defining structures. (R.S.)
• Utopia -- Thomas Moore created the word to describe his imaginary island with a seemingly perfect society. The term comes from the term eutopia, meaning "happy or fortunate place". It can also make a word play of itself, in that a second meaning is, "no place, land of nowhere". The basic definition of utopia is an ideally perfect place in relation to politics, laws , customs, and conditions. The more recent development of the word looks at it as an impossibly ideal situation, especially for social improvement. This has meant a reevaluation of the word as well, where some see it to mean a world that is not necessarily perfect, but one that is better than the present. The utopia fits into SF in that the world depicted is almost always in the future. Another word, euchronia or "good time", has been applied to this speculative paradise. An interesting note here is that people, until the sixteenth century, did not realize that the past, present, and future were different from each other (James 19). This meant that the present could be improved upon. Utopia is linked to the idea of progress, socially and technologically, in that our society is seen to be heading in the direction of perfection. (R.S.)
  
• Wasteland -- The wasteland motif is a relatively recent development in SF. Traditionally, wasteland has been construed as anything from unarable land to land that has been destroyed by some accident of nature or humanity. Within the confines of SF, the wasteland has particular significance in that it represents a growing concern for political and social forces of the 20th century. Writers began to see the arms race and the cold war of the 50¹s - Œ80¹s as the possible destruction of human civilization. The icon of the wasteland therefore often employs some type of apocalyptic setting, a post-holocaust world in which humans are attempting to rebuild their civilization. However, Wolfe points out that ³[n]uclear disaster rapidly became incorporated into the catalog of science-fiction Œdevices¹ that are used as means to a theme rather than as the theme itself² (Wolfe 127). Thus, the wasteland becomes a means, not to warn or frighten the populace, but to continue to explore that relationship between the known and the unknown and the alienation of humanity.[TLT]