Persuasion

Much of the modern taxonomy of rhetorical theory and practice derives from Aristotle's Rhetoric. Persuasion is the concommitant of choice and the freedom to choose. If truth is established by absolute authority, there is no choice. If there is no truth to choose, there is no correct choice (anarchy). Persuasion, then, entails the negotiation of reasonable choices.

One nice feature of writing persuasive discourse is that a good part of your thesis is already determined: you want to persuade X (audience) of Y (proposition, position, assertion, belief). What needs to be decided upon are the means by which you will do this (methods). Among your options are:

Logical Appeals

• Induction: generalizing from particulars (an inference drawn from examination of details or data)
  
  
• Deduction: begins with a premise or premises ("the given") and derives inferences from the premise(s) (moves from the general to the particular). The structure of deductive reason is labeled a "syllogism": one major premise + one minor premise leads to a new understanding or conclusion. For example:
  
  
  • "all men are mortal" (major premise) + "Socrates is a man" (minor premise) leads to the conclusion "Socrates is mortal."

Emotional ("Pathetic") Appeals, e.g.:

• anger
• love
• hate
• fear
• pity
• envy
• self-interest
• humor
• ridicule

Personal ("Ethical) Appeals: based on the personal authority or credibility of the speaker/writer

• the speaker/writer's own credentials on the topic
• the citing of other authorities or reputable sources
• invoking the endorsement of an outside source or personality
• conveying competence
• conveying the impression of ethical/moral behavior
• consistency
• making strategic concessions

In examining a piece of discourse for its logical strengths and, more particularly, its weaknesses, be on the lookout for:

• logical fallacies
• use of sterotypes, generalizations derived from too little evidence
• faulty causality
• "either/or" fallacy (are other options available?)
• red herrings**
• "Ad hominem" (literally, "to the man") arguments
  • name-calling, slander, racism, sexism, etc.
• "Ad populem" ("to the people")
  • appeals to the fears, prejudices, weaknesses of the intended audience

*exempli gratia: "for (the sake of) example" [return]

**A term derived from a practice in which landowners objecting to foxhunters crossing their property would drag a smoked herring across the paths of foxes in order to lead the pack astray. In rhetoric, a red herring refers to distractions or tangents that lead away from the main issue (throwing the reader or audience "off the scent"). [return]